Instructional approaches in Peace Education

 

Holistic Education

Holistic education is based in relationships and connections.  Holists believe that both interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of education are incredibly important.  For holists the term "relationships" refers to one's relationship with one's self, other human beings, animals, nature and ideas.  Since relationships are key students need to form a relationship with their curriculum and what they learn in school.  To achieve this relationship holists believe in promoting connections between the curriculum and the lives of students.   Due to the centrality of these two ideas, relationships and connections, holists believe that everything in the world(or technically, the universe) is interconnected.  Therefore, students must learn how to see connections between everything they learn in school and out of school.   Holist educators and philosophers are largely critical of the contempoary education system throughout the world.  One of their biggest critiques is that it(the current system) does not incorporate the entire student.  Holist believe that education today only focuses on the mind, while a true education must focus on the mind, body and spirit since all of these aspects are connected and influence each other.  One model of holism in practice is seen in the Waldorf Educational System.  Waldorf education was developed by Rudolph Steiner in 1919 and has the goal of engaging the head , the hands and the heart of children in a developmentally appropriate manner.  Waldorf schools believe that the physical environment is important for learning and therefore decorate their schools in a colorful and pleasing manner. Teachers also evaluate students using haikus that express each student's strengthes and weaknesses (that may or may not have anything to do with traditional academic areas). 

Mitchell, D. (n.d.). Waldorf Education: An Introduction What is Waldorf Education? In Why Waldorf 

     Works. Retrieved from http://www.whywaldorfworks.org/02_W_Education/index.asp 

Kurth-Schai, R. (2010, April 6). Holism and Education. Class Lecture presented at Macalester 

     College, St. Paul, MN, U.S. 

 

Participatory Education

Participatory Education is an educational model in which students are given as much of a voice as their teachers in determining curriculum and activities.  All participants are active in defining their own needs as well as their own desires.  Beyond simply defining these things, all participants work to implement them and then to evaluate the process that they used to achieve the goals.  The overall purpose of participatory education is defined as improving one's own life as well as the lives of others in the world by promoting justice and equality.  

Sauve, V. L. (n.d.). From One Educator to Another: A Window on Participatory Education. In Grant 

     MacEwan Community College. 

Therefore, participatory education is a methodology that fits the methods of peace education while also believing itself in promoting peace and equality. 

One example of the use of participatory education for the promotion of peace education is through a program called Horn Relief, which is based in Somalia.  Horn Relief works to promote empowerment of and leadership building among women in pastoral communities in Somalia.  Horn Relief uses a participatory education model because it believes in the value of its participants setting their own priorities and determining what they care about, rather than having this set from the perspective of an outsider.

Horn Relief: What we do Participatory Education & Training . (2005). Horn Relief. Retrieved from 

     http://www.hornrelief.org/education-training.htm 

The articipatory education model is also seen in a program by the NGO Project Muso Ladamunen, which works in rural Mali.  This program uses a diffusion model, based in participatory education for teaching.  A few women from the community determine some subjects that are of interest to them and their community.  They learn these subjects and then go and teach other women in the village, who repeat the cycle.  The program teaches about practical skills such as higeine and health care, academic areas that impact the women's lives (basic literacy and math) and human rights and democracy, as related to the lives of the women.

Participatory Education Program. (n.d.). Project Muso Ladamunen. Retrieved from Under the Baobab 

     Tree website: http://www.projectmuso.org/programs/education 

In classroom settings, the most common way in which participatory education is enacted is through role playing and simulation.  Role play/simulations work to pique students' curisoity.  When students are in role they learn how to ask important and thoughtful questions and to use this to critically analyze situations.  Simulations are particularly useful when they are student selected and designed and present a holistic picture of the situation that is being depicted. Simulations and role play can be particularly daunting for teachers.  Therefore, we have worked to compile as many tips and as much advice as we can to make this task somewhat easier. 

Paul Dosh is a professor of Political Science and Latin American Studies at Macalester College(MN, United States).  He uses simulations(successfully!) in all of his courses.  He provides his students with the following guidelines when they are preparing for a simulation. These guideliens ensure that students are as prepared as possible for their role.  Preparation is key for simulations, since students need to understand the material before they can participate in a simulation.  Additionally, students cannot simply prepare by knowing the information; they also must understnad how the simulation will operate and how their character would respond to specific situations.   By putting themselves into character and thinking about specific situations that might arise, students are also working on learning the specifics of the situation that is being simulated.  The following are his guidelines:

 " Preparing for the Simulation

•Review your notes on readings and discussions relevant to the simulation.   

•Find out specifics about your character if possible and understand the specifics of the 1980 constitution (see Silva chapter in Vanden & Prevost).

•Put together a brief introductory statement for the beginning of the conference.  Depending on your role, this may be brief or lengthy, passionate or not, autobiographical or not, goal-oriented or not, etc.   

 

Tips for Getting into Character

1.  Make lists of things you like and dislike (be sure to include the names of other characters in role-play!).  Make the lists big so you have an opinion on as many things as possible (e.g. economics, human rights, socialism, the armed forces, the United States, etc.).  When you make choices, seek to increase conflict and make the story more interesting.  This goes against our normal sensibilities, but in this setting, conflict is desirable. 

2.  List 10 positive adjectives about your character.  This is especially important if you are playing a character with whom you do not agree ideologically. 

3.  Refrain from moral judgment on your character. 

4.  What is your status and power relative to everyone else in the game?  The point of the exercise is not for you to "win," but for you to do a good job playing your character.  Who are you afraid of?  Who do you have power over?  In our game, your character may end up “losing,” but if you acted your character to the fullest than this is not a bad thing.

5.  What do you want?  What are the consequences if you don't get it?  How far will you go? 

6.  Avoid advertising your "true colors," especially in your introductory remarks.  Think about what your character would actually say in public."

Dosh, Paul. Personal interview. 24 May 2010. 

 

Chris Smith is a high school social studies teacher in Vermont in the United States.  He discusses that as a teacher the hardest aspect of planning a simulation is finding some way to keep all students occupied and busy in a way in which they feel actively part of the simulation.  With different roles in the simulation, it is almost inevitable that you will create a situation in which a few students have significantly more to do than the rest of the students.  This is not necessarilly bad, since simulations are designed to represent real world situations, in which power dynamics are not even.  However to deal with this the teacher needs to design the simulation in a way that everyone has a task to do.  One example of this from a simulation that Smith conducts in his U.S. history course.  The simulation is about labor relations in the U.S. in the early 20th Century.  This time period was defined by fights for labor rights, using strikes and unionizing, throughout industrial cities of the United States.  In this simulation the majority of students are general laborers.  They are given an in-depth story of their personal history to help them react to specific situations.  However, a few students have roles that are more powerful, such as the head of the factory or the spokesperson for the union.  Therefore, Smith has to work to ensure that the students who have powerful roles do not dominate the simulation, since this will lead to boredom and lack of involvement from the rest of the students.  Therefore, all students are told that there are no rules and that they need to work to, however they can, get what is best for them and their family, even if it does not go through the structures of power that they percieve "required".

Smith, Chris. Personal interview. 24 May 2010. 

 

Research conducted regarding simulations has identified several elements as key to success.  These elements include ensuring that there are clear objectives for the simulation, both in what the teacher wants the students to learn and what the students are supposed to achieve during the simulation, ensuring that all students are actively engaged and using simulations to not simply promote learning academic concepts.  This last guideline is important because it has been found that simulations are effective when they teach students skills for future professions, empathy or intercultural interactions and understanding. 

Many teachers shy away from simulations since preparing one can appear incredibly daunting both for its complicated interactions and because of the time commitment needed to make a successful simulation.  However, the studies stress that good simulations do not need to be time intensive and  in fact many good simulations already exist and can simply be modified for the needs of the teacher.  Additionally, a simple simulation can be just as effective as a complicated one. 

Currently, there is a debate about whether or not simulations teach the academic areas that they wish to teach.  There seems to be no evidence that students learn better via a simulaiton.  However, there is strong evidence that students learn empathy and decision-making skills via simulations.  Therefore, from the perspective of peace education, simulatinos teach academic skills just as well as other methodologies and promote skills that are essential to peace education, making them an important tool.  Simulations have been shown to strongly increase student enjoyment and engagement with the material, which is more important in peace education than test scoes.

 

For teachers who will be designing their own simulations, five elements have been determined as key for planning.  Therefore the elements that teachers need to consider are: target audience, instructor control, duration of the simulation, the goals of the simulation and how students will debrief the activity.  Thinking about assessment is also a key aspect of conducting a simulation.  Some suggestions for how to assess students in a simulation are:

1.  Self-Reflection papers.  Self- reflection gives students the opportunity to explain their understanding of key concepts from the simulation as well as to discuss how the information from the simulation applies to other areas of their study or life.  Students, especially those at higher levels, can also discuss if the construction of the simulation itself was valid. 

 

2.  Peer Evaluation is a useful tool when the simulation consisted of mostly group work, since it gives a fuller perspective of the students work.  

 

3.  Portfolios are incredibly popular as a tool of authentic assessment, or assessment that emulates real life conditions.  Therefore, they fit perfectly in with the idea behind simulations, which is creating real life situations within the classroom.  Portfolios work best when the simulation is one that occurs over a long period of time, so that student growth and change can be seen.  

 

4.  Post tests and participation represent more traditional ways for student assessment.  Students can be assessed based on their participation in the simulation itself as well as the preparation for the simulation.  With regards to post-tests, students should be tested on areas of comprehension that the teacher hoped to teach via the simulation.  The post=test can be for a grade but it can,, often more effectively, be a mechanism by which the teacher identifies his/her success in imparting the concepts that he/she wihed to share with the students. 

 

Hora, Jennifer, and Robbin Smith. "Track Nine: Simulations and Role Play." The American Political 

     Science Association. N.p., 2009. Web. 28 May 2010. <http://www.apsanet.org/ 

     content_65119.cfm>. 

 

Raymond, Chad, and Denise Vaughan. "Track Five: Simulations and Role Play I." The American Political 

     Science Association. N.p., 2008. Web. 28 May 2010. <http://www.apsanet.org/ 

     content_53311.cfm>. 

 

 

  Participatory education is very much connected to the philosophers and practices that have been put forth throughout this peace education curriculum since it works to connect the real life of the student to the educational experience to make the education relevant and guiding for the student´s life. 

Participatory education has been shown to have numerous positive developmental impacts on youth and students.  In participatory education students are asked to challenge what they are told by their teachers and other sources of traditional authority.  This aspect of participatory education can be difficult for many to accept and makes participatory education less popular and used than it should be.  

Larsson, E. (n.d.). Participatory Education: What and Why. Retrieved from www.ropecon.fi/brap/ 

     ch24.pdf 

 

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning can be a great way to teach all students, as well as to engage in some of the key aspects of Peace Education.  Elliot Aronson, a well-known educational psychologist in the United States, conducted a study regarding cooperative learning in 1971.  Aronson conducted this study in a recently integrated school that was experiencing lots of racial tension in Austin, Texas.  Aronson found that when students were placed into groups where they all relied on each other, problems with racism went away.  He found that this strategy was significantly more effective than teacher rules that required inclusion.  True cooperative learning have five tenets to ensure effectiveness.  They are Personal Interdependence, Individual Accountability, Group Processing, Social Skills and Face to Face Interactions.  Personal Interdependence means that each member of the group is dependent on the other members of the group to get the knowledge that he or she wants.  Additionally, each member of the group has something unique to share to contribute to the knowledge of the rest.  However, if members are not held accountable individually then some members will choose not to do their work.  Additionally, the system will be unfair for those who do work.  Therefore, teachers have to strike a balance between these two forces to motivate students and to create an environment where everyone is interdependent but judged on his or her own merit.  The next three elements work to ensure that the group actually works together, rather than simply having each person contribute a piece of the puzzle without checking to see if it fits.  Therefore, the group must process the results together, to ensure that they are logical and that they achieve the aim of the group.  The activity must also work to build social skills, not simply academic ones.  These skills are problem solving, trust building and leadership.   Finally, to ensure that this occurs, the majority of the work needs to happen in a face to face environment, rather than via the internet or the telephone.  This allows students to question and make connections as a group.  The specific method that Aronson supports, based on these principles, is the Jigsaw Method.  In a jigsaw students are placed in groups of 5.  Then each student is assigned one of the 5 chapters to read.  Students read their chapter.  Then they meet with everyone else who read the same chapter and form what is called a mastery group.  This allows the students to clarify and further their knowledge from what they read.  Then the students return to their original groups.  Each original group will have one person for each chapter.  Each students will share what they learned from their individual chapter.  Therefore, all students will have gained the knowledge from their peers.  They will be held responsible, as individuals, for all of the knowledge, and therefore are reliant on their gorup to ensure individual success. 

 

Woolfolk, A. E. (2007). Educational Psychology (tenth edition). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 

Aronson, J.,  ed. (2002). Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education. NY: Academic Press. 

 

1. Jigsaw - Groups with five students are set up. Each group member is assigned some unique material to learn and then to teach to his group members. To help in the learning students across the class working on the same sub-section get together to decide what is important and how to teach it. After practice in these "expert" groups the original groups reform and students teach each other. (Wood, p. 17) Tests or assessment follows.

2. Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step individuals think silently about a question posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during the second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their responses with other pairs, other teams, or the entire group.

3. Three-Step Interview (Kagan) - Each member of a team chooses another member to be a partner. During the first step individuals interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step, members share their partner's response with the team.

4. RoundRobin Brainstorming (Kagan)- Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with one person appointed as the recorder. A question is posed with many answers and students are given time to think about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes down the answers of the group members. The person next to the recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an answer until time is called.

5. Three-minute review - Teachers stop any time during a lecture or discussion and give teams three minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.

6. Numbered Heads Together (Kagan) - A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the question so that all can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.

7. Team Pair Solo (Kagan)- Students do problems first as a team, then with a partner, and finally on their own. It is designed to motivate students to tackle and succeed at problems which initially are beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated learning. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems they could not do alone, first as a team and then with a partner, they progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they could do only with help.

8. Circle the Sage (Kagan)- First the teacher polls the class to see which students have a special knowledge to share. For example the teacher may ask who in the class was able to solve a difficult math homework question, who had visited Mexico, who knows the chemical reactions involved in how salting the streets help dissipate snow. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out in the room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going to the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then return to their teams. Each in turn, explains what they learned. Because each one has gone to a different sage, they compare notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally, the disagreements are aired and resolved.

9. Partners (Kagan) - The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move to one side of the room. Half of each team is given an assignment to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work to learn and can consult with other partners working on the same material. Teams go back together with each set of partners teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might improve the process.

 

 

Given the importance of teaching children, adolescents, and young adults how to manage conflicts constructively, there is a need for conflict resolution training programs that are based on theory and validated by research. Our approach to teaching students how to manage conflicts constructively that consists of three parts:

1. Establishing a cooperative context. This begins with cooperative learning and extends into the cooperative school (Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1998).

http://www.co-operation.org/pages/peace-meta.html

 

Moving from Cooperative Learning to a cooperative School

In a cooperative school, students work primarily in cooperative learning groups, teachers and building staff work in cooperative teams, and district administrators work in cooperative teams. The organizational structures of the classroom, school, and district are then congruent. Each level of cooperative teams supports and enhances the other levels.

 

A cooperative school structure begins in the classroom with the use of cooperative learning the majority of the time (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec, 1993).

 

The second level in creating a cooperative school is to form collegial teaching teams, task forces, and ad hoc decision-making groups within the school

Key activities of a collegial teaching team include (Johnson & Johnson, 1994):

1. Frequent professional discussions of cooperative learning in which common vocabulary is developed, information is shared, successes are celebrated, and implementation problems are solved.
2. Coplanning, codesigning, copreparing, and coevaluating cooperative learning lessons and instructional units.
3. Coteaching cooperative lessons and jointly processing those lessons.

 

http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cs.html

 

 

1. Take existing lessons, curricula, and courses and structure them cooperatively.
2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to meet the unique instructional circumstances and needs of the curricula, subject areas, and students.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and intervene to increase the effectiveness of the student learning groups.

http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl.html

Values that result from Cooperative Learning

 

1. Commitment to the common good. In cooperative situations, individualsí work contributes not only to their own well-being, but also to the well being of all other collaborators. There is a built-in concern for the common good and the success of others, as the efforts of others also contribute to oneís own well-being.

2. Success depends on the joint efforts of everyone to achieve mutual goals. Since cooperators "sink or swim together," an "all for one and one for all" mentality is appropriate. What is valued is teamwork and civic responsibility. Succeeding depends on everyone doing his or her part. Cooperation teaches the value of working together to achieve mutual goals.

3. Facilitating, promoting, and encouraging the success of others is a natural way of life. Succeeding depends on everyone doing well. There are two ways to succeedócontributing all one can to the joint effort and promoting other cooperatorsí efforts to contribute. A smart cooperator will always find ways to promote, facilitate, and encourage the efforts of others.

4. The pleasure of succeeding is associated with others' happiness in their success. Cooperators feel great about succeeding and they automatically feel great about other people succeeding. When someone succeeds, it is a source of pleasure and happiness because it means that oneís help and assistance has paid off.

5. Other people are potential contributors to oneís success. Because smart cooperators will promote and facilitate the work of others, cooperators are to be trusted because their efforts to succeed will promote oneís own success. Cooperation casts schoolmates as allies, colleagues, and friends who will contribute to one's success.

6. Other peopleís worth is unconditional. Because there are so many diverse ways that a person may contribute to a joint effort, everyone has value all the time. This inherent value is reaffirmed by working for the success of all. Cooperation places value on a wide range of diverse qualities that facilitate joint success. Thus, everyone has value.

7. Self-worth is unconditional. Cooperation teaches that self-worth results from contributing whatever resources one has to the joint effort and common good. A person never loses value. Cooperative experiences result in individuals believing in themselves and their worth.

8. Cooperators value intrinsic motivation based on striving to learn, grow, develop, and succeed. Learning is the goal, not winning. The inducement of trying to contribute to the common good, like other intrinsic motivators, increases studentsí interest in the task itself.

9. People who are different from oneself are to be valued. Other people are perceived to be potential resources for and contributors to oneís success. If they are different that means more diverse resources are available for the joint effort and, therefore, the difference is valued. The diverse contributions of members results in the realization that, in the long run, everyone is of equal value and equally deserving, regardless of their gender, ethnic membership, culture, social class, or ability.

 

http://www.co-operation.org/pages/CLandD.html#coopval

 

Experiential Education

What is Experiential Education?

Tell me and I will forget.  Show me and I may remember.  Involve me and I will understand.  ~Chinese Proverb

 

This proverb is the key to experiential education.  Experiential education is a broad term that encompasses the other learning approaches that will be addressed in this section, as well as many others, such as constructivism and outdoor education, that are not part of this section. 

 

 

Experiential education is a philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills and clarify values.

Am I an Experiential Educator?
Experiential educators include teachers, camp counselors, corporate team builders, therapists, challenge course practitioners, environmental educators, guides, instructors, coaches, mental health professionals . . . and the list goes on.  An experiential educator is anyone who teaches through direct experience.

---

The principles¹ of experiential education practice are:

• Experiential learning occurs when carefully chosen experiences are supported by reflection, critical analysis and synthesis.
• Experiences are structured to require the learner² to take initiative, make decisions and be accountable for results.
• Throughout the experiential learning process, the learner is actively engaged in posing questions, investigating, experimenting, being curious, solving problems, assuming responsibility, being creative, and constructing meaning.
• Learners are engaged intellectually, emotionally, socially, soulfully and/or physically. This involvement produces a perception that the learning task is authentic.
• The results of the learning are personal and form the basis for future experience and learning.
• Relationships are developed and nurtured: learner to self, learner to others and learner to the world at large.
• The educator³ and learner may experience success, failure, adventure, risk-taking and uncertainty, because the outcomes of experience cannot totally be predicted.
• Opportunities are nurtured for learners and educators to explore and examine their own values.
• The educator's primary roles include setting suitable experiences, posing problems, setting boundaries, supporting learners, insuring physical and emotional safety, and facilitating the learning process.
• The educator recognizes and encourages spontaneous opportunities for learning.
• Educators strive to be aware of their biases, judgments and pre-conceptions, and how these influence the learner.
• The design of the learning experience includes the possibility to learn from natural consequences, mistakes and successes.

1) The priority or order in which each professional places these principles may vary.

2) There is no single term that encompasses all the roles of the participant within experiential education. Therefore, the term "learner" is meant to include student, client, trainee, participant, etc.

3) There is no single term that encompasses all the roles of the professional within experiential education. Therefore, the term "educator" is meant to include therapist, facilitator, teacher, trainer, practitioner, counselor, etc.

 

Association for Experiential Education. (2007). Retrieved from http://www.aee.org/ 

Techniques and strategies:

 

-

-

 

Attributes of a Peace Educator:

 

-

-